Photo: The shrine of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, built in an area revered by Muslims, Christians and Jews alike covers the rock from which Muhammad is believed to have ascended to heaven with the Angel Gabriel. Islam, they say, was revealed through a long line of prophets inspired by God. Within four years after the death of the Prophet the Muslim state had extended its sway over all of Syria and had, at a famous battle fought during a sandstorm near the River Yarmuk, blunted the power of the Byzantines - whose ruler Heraclius had shortly before disdainfully rejected the letter from the unknown Prophet of Arabia. As is well known, the Arabs made no attempt to impose their faith on their new subjects, and at first in fact discouraged conversions on the part of non-Arabs. His caliphate was a high point in early Islamic history. The main body of the Shi'is, on the other hand, believes that the caliphate - which they call the imamate or "leadership" - is nonelective. The Mansuri Hospital in Cairo, Egypt, was an important teaching hospital in medieval times. From 821 onward Tahir and his descendants ruled Khorasan as an independent state, with the tacit consent of the 'Abbasids. Some regions never fully recovered and the Muslim empire, already weakened by internal pressures, never fully regained its previous power. Impressed by Thabit's learning, Muhammad personally presented him to the caliph, who was in turn so impressed that he appointed Thabit court astrologer. The latter impact manifests today because there is a lot of animosity between Christians and Muslims (especially in the Middle East). But . In the Arabian Peninsula the Ottomans penetrate to al-Hasa on the Arabian Gulf and to Mocha on the Red Sea. Despite the great body of tradition and law, however the practice of Islam is essentially personal - a direct relationship between individuals and God. Their conversion was especially noteworthy because these men had been among Muhammad's bitterest opponents only a short time before. The mandates were inconsistent with British promises to the Arabs and, furthermore, contrary to the recommendations of President Wilson's King-Crane Commission, a group sent to the Middle East in 1919 specifically to ascertain the wishes of the Arab peoples. Alerted by a chain of signal fires stretching from Iraq to Egypt, the Mamluks were able to marshal their forces in time to meet, and crush, the Mongols at 'Ayn Jalut near Nazareth in Palestine. The Arab scholars perceived that a sign representing "nothing" or "nought" was required because the place of a sign gave as much information as its unitary value did. Western forms have been adapted as much as they have been adopted, and healthy hybrid forms and concepts abound. Photo: Purity of line characterizes the late twelfth century Kutubiyah Mosque of the Berbers in Marrakesh. The first great advance on the inherited mathematical tradition was the introduction of "Arabic" numerals, which actually originated in India and which simplified calculation of all sorts and made possible the development of algebra. After its development in Turkey, it spread to the Arab countries and is in use today for formal documents and also as architectural decoration. These traditions not only provided the historical context for many of the surahs - thus contributing to their more exact explication - but also contained a wide variety of subsidiary information on the practice, life, and legal rulings of the Prophet and his companions. But then, in the period of the Inquisition, all the rights of the Muslims were withdrawn, their lives became difficult, and more began to emigrate. After Muhammad had preached publicly for more than a decade, the opposition to him reached such a high pitch that, fearful for their safety, he sent some of his adherents to Ethiopia, where the Christian ruler extended protection to them, the memory of which has been cherished by Muslims ever since. The most important of the Baghdad hospitals was that established in 982 (372 H) by the ruler `Adud al-Dawlah. Photo: Sixteenth century Sultan Selim Mosque at Edirne is the apogee of Ottoman Turkish architecture, soaring space enclosed with a massive dome. The early advance of Islam went hand in hand with military expansion - whether it was the motivation for it is difficult to tell, although one recent book suggests that Islam certainly facilitated the growth of Muslim power. Extending from Central Asia to the Byzantine marches in Asia Minor, the Seljuk state under its first three sultans- Tughril Beg, Alp-Arslan, and Malikshah- established a highly cohesive, well-administered Sunni state under the nominal authority of the 'Abbasid caliphs at Baghdad. In Lebanon missionaries from several countries founded a network of schools and universities. The earliest inscription that has been found that is identifiably Arabic is one in Sinai that dates from about A.D. 300. Our themes mostly focus on the universal values such as compassion, patience, love and so on. Welcome to the world's oldest and most recognized Islamic Web site. As they grew in importance to the economy these craftsmen eventually organized themselves into mutual-benefit societies which in some ways were similar to later Western guilds and which offered many social services: lodging travelers, engaging in pious works such as caring for orphans, and endowing schools. These problems were not unmanageable while Mu'awiyah was alive, but after he died in 680 the partisans of 'Ali resumed a complicated but persistent struggle that plagued the Umayyads at home for most of the next seventy years and in time spread into North Africa and Spain. His innovations left all enduring imprint on social welfare, taxation, and the financial and administrative fabric of the growing empire. In the same period, the Arab countries themselves, voluntarily and pragmatically, continued to adopt Western techniques, forms, and to some extent concepts. Resistance to European penetration took several forms. Led by Genghis Khan, a confederation of nomadic tribes which had already conquered China now attacked the Muslims. This is exactly what happened. After the first crusade, Western Europe sends 7 more in the next two centuries. Until that time the Egyptian, Greek, and other cultures used their own numerals in a manner similar to that of the Romans. the pilgrims pour out of Mecca to Mina, where, as the Prophet did, they meditate overnight. Photo: A youth in the pilgrim's simple robe reading the Quran. The second pillar, devotional worship or prayer, requires Muslims to pray five times a day - the dawn prayer, the noon prayer, the afternoon prayer, the sunset prayer, and the evening prayer - while facing toward the Ka'bah, the House of God, in Mecca. Towards the end of the Ottoman Empire, this talent fossilized into bureaucracy - and a moribund bureaucracy at that. Among them are Ibrahim (Abraham), patriarch of the Arabs through his first son Isma'il (Ishmael); Musa (Moses), who received the Torah (Tawrah); Dawud (David), who spoke through the Psalms (Zabur); and 'Isa (Jesus), who brought the Gospels (Injil). Consequently, the Holy Text could only be collected as a single corpus - "between the two covers" - after the death of Muhammad. Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. It was a necessary move, but also difficult - particularly when Ferdinand called on him to implement the agreement by providing troops to help the Christians against Muslims in the siege of Seville in 1248. With some exceptions the surahs are arranged in the Quran in descending order of length, with the longest at the beginning and the shortest at the end. Abu Bakr recognized the danger and entrusted the task of gathering the revelations to Zayd ibn Thabit, who as the chief scribe of the Prophet was the person to whom Muhammad frequently dictated the revelations in his lifetime. 'Uthman also, through his cousin Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of Syria, established an Arab navy which fought a series of important engagements with the Byzantines. The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. The three most influential monotheistic religions in world history are Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, all of which began in the Middle East. It makes us a community. Islamic leaders conquered Iran in 641 and in 642, Egypt was under Islamic control. At the beginning of this period, the European presence in the Islamic world was largely based on trade. Assembling an army of three thousand men, they met the Muslims at Uhud, a ridge outside Medina. The religion of Islam began in the Middle East during the early 600s CE. It is both odd and poignant that it was then, in the last two centuries of their rule, that the Arabs created that extravagantly lovely kingdom for which they are most famous: Granada. This was one of the most significant events in the history of ideas. As a result of Arab rule many northern Africans were converted to Islam. Thee only do we worship, and Thee alone we ask for help. Only Granada survived. Islamic calligraphers have experimented endlessly and have been extremely imaginative. To the west, they took North Africa, in a continuation of the campaign led by 'Uqbah ibn Nafi' who founded the city of Kairouan - in what is now Tunisia - and from there rode all the way to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean. In Egypt, the first hospital was built in the southwestern quarter . Photo: The Crusader castle at Sidon in Lebanon was abandoned after the final defeat of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. Still other intellectuals, such as the Egyptian Muhammad 'Abduh and his Syrian disciple Rashid Rida, undertook to reform the Muslim educational system and to restate Islamic values in terms of modern concepts - needs deeply felt by most Muslim thinkers of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. My other grandparents believe in god but don't believe in religion. About the year 590, Muhammad, then in his twenties, entered the service of a widow named Khadijah as a merchant actively engaged with trading caravans to the north. We'd love it if your icon is always green. To make things more difficult, the Prophet had not left clear instructions as to who should lead the community after his death. Western penetration also drew the Middle East into the First World War, when the Ottoman Empire sided with (Germany, and Great Britain, in response, encouraged and supported the Arab Revolt against the Turks. For countless millions, consequently, it has been the single most important force in guiding their religious, social, and cultural lives. Arabic became and has remained the national language - the mother tongue - of North Africa and all the Arab countries of the Middle East. Gibbs. Photo: At Hama in Syria, antique wooden wheels still lift the waters of the Orontes to gardens, baths, and cooling fountains. A complex of marble, stucco, ivory, and onyx, Madinat al-Zahra took forty years to build, cost close to one-third of Cordoba's revenue, and was, until destroyed in the eleventh century, one of the wonders of the age. Herzl's writings and personal advocacy led to the formal development of Zionism, a political movement dedicated to the creation of such a state, and eventually focusing on Palestine. Adopting the title Amir al-Muminin, "Commander of the Believers," 'Umar extended Islam's temporal rule over Syria, Egypt, Iraq, and Persia in what from a purely military standpoint were astonishing victories. 'Abbasid writers also developed new a genres of literature such as adab, the embodiment of sensible counsel, sometimes in the form of animal fables; a typical example is Kalilah wa-Dimnah, translated by Ibn al-Muqaffa' from a Pahlavi version of an Indian work. This spread of Islamic culture was facilitated . Slumber seizes Him not, neither sleep; Photo: The diwani script (top) and the so called "royal" diwani (below) were developed by Ottoman calligraphers for use on state documents. The inimitability of the Quran has crystallized in the Muslim view of i'jaz or "impossibility," which holds that the style of the Quran, being divine, cannot be imitated: any attempt to do so is doomed to failure. And if it was a new and upstart faith, its administration by simple and honest men was preferable to the corruption and persecution that were the norm in more civilized empires George F. Nafziger, Mark W. Walton, Islam at War: A History, 2003. This custom, followed until recently by noble families of Mecca, Medina, Tayif, and other towns of the Hijaz, had important implications for Muhammad. In the early years of Islam in Africa, before the Malian Mansa left for Mecca, the principal interaction between Arabs and Africans was through the markets and the hajj. JazakAllah. In describing the fate of Islam in Spain, Irving suggested that the Muslims were then swiftly and thoroughly wiped out. For those who retire and rest after the day's fast there are, in some areas, men called musahhirs who, in the silent, predawn darkness beat muted drums and call the faithful to awake and eat before the long day's fast begins again. Ibn Ishaq, one of the earliest biographers of the Prophet, says it was at about this time that Muhammad sent letters to the rulers of the earth - the King of Persia, the Emperor of Byzantium, the Negus of Abyssinia, and the Governor of Egypt among others - inviting them to submit to Islam. In some ways the 'Abbasids were more fortunate than the Umayyads. By the end of the 1970s the Arabs, having assumed control of their own destinies, had emerged as full and independent participants in the affairs of the world. Photo: Persian miniature depicts students with a teacher of astronomy - one of the sciences to which scholars of the Golden Age made great contributions. The cloth trade produced a number of auxiliary exports: gold and silver thread for embroidery, gum from the Sudan for glazing, and needles, looms, and dyestuffs. Secular states encouraged a more private practice of Islam. Arabic calligraphy therefore came to be used not only in producing copies of the Quran (its first and for many centuries its most important use), but also for all kinds of other artistic purposes as well on porcelain and metalware, for carpets and other textiles, on coins, and as architectural ornament (primarily on mosques and tombs but also, especially in later years, on other buildings as well). The early 'Abbasids were also fortunate in the caliber of their caliphs, especially after Harun al-Rashid came to the caliphate in 786. Short-Term Effects. In Mecca the plotters arrived at Muhammad's home to find that his cousin, 'Ali, had taken his place in bed. Neither power had played a major role in the early phases of penetration, but this changed as they developed conflicting interests with regard to the Arab-Israeli dispute, the construction of the Aswan Dam in Egypt, the rise of a number of radical governments in the area, and the emergence of the Arab world as a pivotal supplier of oil to the world. Photo: Cursive script on Quran stand of wood, dated 1360, a fine example of Mongol art from western Turkestan. After the death of his grandfather, Muhammad was raised by his uncle, Abu Talib. Photo: In the ceremony of sa'y they reenact the search for water by Hagar, wife of the patriarch Abraham. The contents of the Quran differ in substance and arrangement from the Old and New Testaments. To Him belongs all that is In the eighth century, however, they had a more convenient source: the works of Greek scientists stored in libraries in Constantinople and other centers of the Byzantine empire. What the envoys saw and heard had impressed them and they had invited Muhammad to settle in Medina. In the early days of Islam, the extension of Islamic rule had been based on an uncomplicated desire to spread the Word of God. Dome of the Clocks, Umayyad Mosque, Damascus, Syria. It made it possible to put books within the reach of everyone. [2] While the Black Death's mortality and impact in Europe has received a great deal of attention, the same cannot be said for the case of the Black Death in the Middle East. Despite the great mass of words, the full explanation for Muslim victory still eludes us. The sunnah - which supplements and complements the Quran, the Word of God, and is next to it in importance - embodies the meticulously documented acts and sayings of the Prophet recorded in a body of writings called the hadith. In the tenth century he proposed a plan to dam the Nile. In the next decades, raiding parties continually made forays into France and in 732 reached as far as the Loire Valley, only 170 miles from Paris. In it he stresses the responsibilities of the ruler: for example, if a man is killed because a bridge is in disrepair, it is the fault of the ruler, for he should make it his business to apprise himself of the smallest negligences of his underlings. In fact, the crusades shocked the Muslim world. At their peak they ruled North Africa, the Red Sea coast, Yemen, Palestine, and parts of Syria. But this mixture of motives combined to form a process that forged Islamic and Arab ideals and communities into a fast-growing religious and political identity. This page has been archived and is no longer updated. Although the entire contents of the Quran, the placement of its verses, and the arrangement of its chapters date back to the Prophet, as long as he lived he continued to receive revelations. The coming of Islam saw a general decline in the status of . On the next day they proceed en masse to 'Arafat, even farther outside Mecca, and pray and meditate in what is the central rite of the pilgrimage: "the standing" - a few precious hours of profound self-examination, supplication, and penance in which, many say, a Muslim comes as close to God as he can, on earth. But from the middle of the sixteenth century on the empire began to decline. The Middle East is a geographical region that has been of great importance in history since ancient times. Islam numbers many millions of adherents outside the Middle Eastern countries: Photo: Sunset silhouettes a minaret in Sarajevo, a city of some eighty mosques that bear witness to the long Islamic heritage of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In the meantime, the Mongols, like so many of the peoples who had come into contact with Islam, had begun to embrace it. Photo: Miniature from the Shah-Nameh (Book of Kings), illustrating the epic of Persian poet Firdausi. By the end of the 13th century it had begun to pull even, and by the end of the 15th century it had surpassed both. This tumultuous period also saw an increase in the influence of the United States and the Soviet Union in the Middle East. In medicine they experimented with diet, drugs, surgery, and anatomy, and in chemistry, an outgrowth of alchemy, isolated and studied a wide variety of minerals and compounds. Trade flourished and the Middle East experienced an economic and cultural renaissance. Geographical unity, however, was but one factor. One day, as he sat in the cave, he heard a voice, later identified as that of the Angel Gabriel, which ordered him to: Recite: In the name of thy Lord who created, Created man from a clot of blood. Nevertheless, Mu'awiyah was never able to reconcile the opposition to his rule nor solve the conflict with the Shi'is. Finally, in the early seventeenth century, most of the survivors were forcibly expelled. Important advances in agriculture were also made in the Golden Age. In short, he demonstrated the viability of the Muslim state. The Black Death (1347 - 1351 CE) was the first and greatest of the many plague outbreaks of the second plague pandemic in the Middle East (1347 CE to 1877 CE). The Muslims also traded medicines, an offshoot of 'Abbasid advances in medical science, as well as paper and sugar. Islam has helped to shape the culture from the language, to customs, to business, to . Muslims believe that their sacred text, the Quran, is the absolute word of God as it was revealed to the prophet Muhammad. The first important step in the establishment of this empire was taken in 1326 when the Ottoman leader Orhan captured the town of Bursa, south of the Sea of Marmara, and made it his capital. Muiawiyah was an able administrator, and even his critics concede that he possessed to a high degree the much-valued quality of hilm - a quality which may be defined as "civilized restraint" and which he himself once described in these words: I apply not my sword where my lash suffices, nor my lash where my tongue is enough. When it was founded it had 25 doctors, including oculists, surgeons, and bonesetters. In the forefront was Saudi Arabia, the heartland of Islam, and the site of the momentous events which initiated Islamic history fourteen centuries ago. The Middle East is a colonial invention "serving the West's Eurocentric purpose" to extend its sphere of influence through "civilising" the Orient (Bilgin 2004: 26). Later, after Ibn al-Ahmar's death, Granada itself was rebuilt and became, as one Arab visitor wrote, "as a silver vase filled with emeralds. Never, he wrote, was the annihilation of a people more complete. The hajj proper must be made between the eighth and thirteenth days of the 12th month - Dhu al-Hijjah - of the Muslim year, but in one sense it begins when a Muslim approaches Mecca, bathes, trims his nails and hair, discards jewelry and headgear, and puts on the ihram dress. The Europeans mounted a series of further crusading expeditions against the Muslims over the next hundred years or so, but the Crusaders never again recovered the initiative. In fact, by emigration to North Africa and elsewhere, many Muslims carried remnants of the Spanish era with them and were thus able to make important contributions to the material and cultural life of their adopted lands. Although such internal conflict was by no means uncommon- the Christian kingdoms also warred incessantly among themselves- it did divert Muslim strength at a time when the Christians were beginning to negotiate strong alliances, form powerful armies, and launch the campaigns that would later bring an end to Arab rule. As a result, several traditional means of chanting, or intoning, the Quran were found side by side. Later a director of the House of Wisdom, Hunayn also wrote at least twenty-nine original treatises of his own on medical topics, and a collection of ten essays on ophthalmology which covered, in systematic fashion, the anatomy and physiology of the eye and the treatment of various diseases which afflict vision. In fact, it's hard to . Control of the Eastern trade became a constantly recurring theme in later relations between the European countries and the East, and in the nineteenth century was to lead to widespread Western intervention. This is not to say that the Muslims were not brave and that the conviction that they were doing Allah's will was not significant: it clearly was. The process that resulted in Swahili culture took several centuries. Islamic Expansion in the Time of Muhammad and the First Four Caliphs. Followers of Islam joined together against European invaders to defend their way life. Photo: The minaret of the Great Mosque at Kairouan in Tunisia became the prototype for the majority of North African minarets. Photo: Dressed in their simple ihram garments, all pilgrims are equal in the eyes of God. The volunteers - a mixed assemblage of kings, nobles, mercenaries, and adventurers - had to cross thousands of miles of unfamiliar and hostile country and conquer lands of whose strength they had no conception. It was under the 'Abbasids, however, that calligraphy first began to be systematized. In this manner the Indians would render Roman CCC XX 111 as: 3 2 3. They moved the capital of the empire from Syria to Iraq, where they built a new capital, Baghdad, from which, during the next five centuries, they would influence many of the main events of Islamic history. From ta'liq, in turn, another script called nasta'liq was derived which combines the Arabic naskhi and the Persian tailiq into a beautifully light and legible script. Some may also visit the Mosque of the Prophet in Medina before returning to their homes throughout the world in the "sudden, glad stillness" of those who have stood at 'Arafat. There, at the Battle of Tours, or Poitiers, the Arabs were finally turned back by Charles Martel. Negotiations over such grievances were opened by representatives from Egypt but soon collapsed and 'Uthman was killed - an act that caused a rift in the community of Islam that has never entirely been closed. The vizier was much more than an advisor; indeed, when the caliph was weak, a capable vizier became the most powerful man in the empire. For fifty years, in fact, Greek remained the chancery language of Syria, Egypt, and Palestine, while Pahlavi, the chancery language of the Sassanians, continued to be used in Mesopotamia and Persia. His son Hasan was proclaimed caliph at Kufa but soon afterward deferred to Muiawiyah, who had already been proclaimed caliph in Jerusalem in the previous year and who now was recognized and accepted as caliph in all the Muslim territories - thus inaugurating the Umayyad dynasty which would rule for the next ninety years. 'S simple robe reading the Quran were found side by side the Muslim empire already!, all pilgrims are equal in the southwestern quarter back how did islam impact the middle east Charles Martel so on to... Damascus, Syria was founded it had 25 doctors, including oculists, surgeons and... Genghis Khan, a confederation of nomadic tribes which had already conquered China now attacked the Muslims were then and! His innovations left all enduring imprint on social welfare, taxation, and healthy hybrid forms concepts. 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